It depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. So is your God a dude or a chick? Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought. [120] Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnsis to the earth,[82][74] while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained enlightenment through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same. In time it will turn around to return to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge and contemplation. The Quqites were a group who followed a Samaritan, Iranian type of Gnosticism in 2nd-century AD Erbil and in the vicinity of what is today northern Iraq. The Community of Christ, known from 1872 to 2001 as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), is an American-based international church, and is the second-largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement.The church reports 250,000 members in 1,100 congregations in 59 countries. Did Jesus have an identical twin? In other words, they forged them. The Mission of the Church Ave Sophia We see our church not simply as a house of worship with walls, a roof and open doors. However, the Mysteries or Sacraments are done with an esoteric Christian view.We do indeed practice Baptism (full immersion Water Baptism followed by anointing with the Messianic Oil, the Baptism of Fire, Confirmation, Communion (The Eucharist), and Matrimony (marriage). In some Islamic schools of thought, somehow identifiable with the Gnostic Monad. There is a danger that those who do not may be confused or misled by the popular claims. The Gnostic Church is the authentic primeval Christian Church whose first Pope was the Gnostic initiate called Peter. [106][note 22] However, his revelation was different from the gnostic revelations. [119][110][116] God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. Peter, Paul, John, and the writer of Hebrews were probably addressing budding Gnostic ideas when they insisted that Jesus came in the flesh and was a man like us. Second, one of the key elements of this epistle involves what some call the "Gnostic Heresy." This teaching infiltrated many of the Gentile churches in the late first century and developed more fully in the second century. [88][137][clarification needed], The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. [28][1][22][note 14] Ethel S. Drower adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call Gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era. Their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. The Basilidians or Basilideans were founded by Basilides of Alexandria in the second century. [184] The pneuma (spirit) must therefore gain victory over the lower and material-bound psyche (soul or anima), to overcome its animal nature. "[117] Mandaeans revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist. A 1st- or 2nd-century date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the 3rd and 4th centuries. Therefore, Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the World of Light. Christ entered the man Jesus when the dove landed on Jesus at his baptism. We are all Children of God, instilled with a Divine Spark, and worthy of His Love. Many people even know about how Christianity went from . [90][88][91][89] Gnostics and proto-orthodox Christians shared some terminology. (Catholicism, Orthodox Church, Protestant, American Evangelical). However, from the Gnostics' own writings, it is more than apparent that the early defenders of orthodoxy got the story right in all its essentials. [39] The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule saw Gnosticism as a pre-Christian phenomenon, and Christian gnosis as only one, and even marginal instance of this phenomenon. In the early- to mid-fourth century, Sethianism fragmented into various sectarian Gnostic groups such as the Archontics, Audians, Borborites, and Phibionites, and perhaps Stratiotici, and Secundians. That would be complete and utter madness! One way to counter the inventions of the Gnostics was to show that as a church leader, you had the truth because you had been trained and commissioned by a man who was trained and commissioned by a man who had been trained and commissioned by an apostle who had been trained and authorized by Christ: thus the church developed the idea of apostolic succession. [16][note 11] The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (Greek , "learned", "intellectual") by St. Irenaeus (c. 185AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis "the heresy called Learned (gnostic)". [200], The study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christianity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in 1945. According to Jonas, alienation is a distinguishing characteristic of Gnosticism, making it different from contemporary religions. [3] Since the 1990s, the category of Gnosticism has come under increasing scrutiny from scholars. Asgeirsson, April D. DeConick and Risto Uro (editors), sfn error: no target: CITEREFPerkins11987 (, Smith, Richard. The similarities probably point to a relationship between gnostic ideas and the Johannine community. The First Gnostic Church of Christ @thefirstgnosticchurchofchr4314 2.14K subscribers Home Videos Playlists Community Channels About Videos Play all 36:06 V9-FGCC Reads Comments & Q/A; "Are Some. [39] Adolf von Harnack (18511930), who belonged to the School of the History of Dogma and proposed a Kirchengeschichtliches Ursprungsmodell, saw Gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy. "[97], The prologue of the Gospel of John describes the incarnated Logos, the light that came to earth, in the person of Jesus. [137] The SyrianEgyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. The Gnostic Church of Christ [GCOC] is an independant Christian denomination which welcomes people of all faiths into our spiritual community. If the rival faiths clash, may that faith win which is best able to inspire its followers and meet their spiritual needs. [43] According to Wilhelm Bousset (18651920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism,[39] and Richard August Reitzenstein (18611931) situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia. In most Gnostic systems, the sufficient cause of salvation is this "knowledge of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. Robinson: "At this stage we have not found any Gnostic texts that clearly antedate the origin of Christianity." This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light. [128] Mandaeans assert that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as a monotheistic faith. Christianity is very concretely an incarnate faith, where God is made flesh among us, and we have seen, touched and known God in the totally human and embodied life of Christ. They called into question the values of "civilized" society and instead fostered spiritual values and lifestyles. Further traces of Gnostic ideas can be found in Sufi anthropogenic[clarification needed]. [187], Found today in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities, the Mandaeans are an ancient Gnostic ethnoreligious group that follow John the Baptist and have survived from antiquity. It was an intellectually vibrant tradition,[152] with an elaborate and philosophically "dense" form of Gnosticism. With the deaths of the apostles and their immediate successors, falsehood found it easier to take root. Gnosticism Definition [67] The numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty. These various groups emphasized personal spiritual knowledge above the orthodox teachings, traditions, and authority of religious institutions. In the end, all will rejoin in glorious Union with the Light of God. Many scriptures about Yeshua were written long after his death, and we do not hold any one book as infallible truth. Gnosticism. God has many emanations or aspects (we call them Aeons), which may correspond to a more masculine or feminine force, but God simplyIs. The Bogomils, emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe. Some Valentinian Gnostics supposed that Christ took on an angelic nature and that he might be the Saviour of angels. When only a few generations of church leaders separated a church leader from Christ, this argument held considerable force. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church. Paul of Tarsus belonged to that church. [130], Due to paraphrases and word-for-word translations from the Mandaean originals found in the Psalms of Thomas, it is now believed that the pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely. Church Angel .com is a directory of churches and Christian counselors that can be searched for by city, state, and denomination covering the United States of America and Canada. Jehova), is depicted as more ignorant than evil.[157]. Gnosticism became the first group to be declared heretical. Ecclesia means Church. [88] Conversion to Islam, and the Albigensian Crusade (12091229), greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though Mandaean communities still exist in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities. And Jesus said: Whoever comprehends the true meaning of these teachings will not experience death. The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. Search. [149][41] Some of these groups existed into the Middle Ages.[149]. [26] According to James M. Robinson, no gnostic texts clearly pre-date Christianity,[note 15] and "pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all. [44] Nevertheless, Geo Widengren (19071996) argued for the origin of Mandaean Gnosticism in Mazdean (Zoroastrianism) Zurvanism, in conjunction with ideas from the Aramaic Mesopotamian world. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVerardi1997 (, Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Clare Goodrick-Clarke, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPerkins1987 (, Deutsch, Nathaniel. [196] The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. Judaism referred to Her as Shekinah, the divine indwelling Presence of God.She is the Bride to Christ's Bridegroom, and it is this that we celebrate with the Mystery of Matrimony (Marriage). We look at books called the old and new apocrypha and pseudepigrapha as well has the nag hammadi library This website was formed for all who wish to know themselves in the light of the teachings of which Christ taught his disciples in private. Other names or identifications are Ahriman, El, Satan, and Yahweh. [6]:109. As the Gospel of Judas shows, one class of Gnostics took a demonic delight in standing Christian teachings on their head and inventing stories that would discredit God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit--the equivalent of a modern artist who puts a crucifix in a bottle of urine. God is commonly thought of as being beyond human comprehension. [141], According to Turner, Sethianism was influenced by Christianity and Middle Platonism, and originated in the second century as a fusion of a Jewish baptizing group of possibly priestly lineage, the so-called Barbeloites,[145] named after Barbelo, the first emanation of the Highest God, and a group of Biblical exegetes, the Sethites, the "seed of Seth". Their main text is the Apocryphon of John, which does not contain Christian elements,[139] and is an amalgam of two earlier myths. The texts commonly attributed to the Thomasine Traditions are: Where Augustine was a member of the school from 373382. The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 has had a huge effect on Gnosticism since World War II. The trend of some Gnostics was to teach that there is no harm in indulging fleshly desires since the body is utterly corrupt and beyond redemption anyhow. Scripture, like the Bible, the Gospel of Thomas, and others, exists to help us draw closer to God, experience Gnosis, and understand what we have experienced. [101] James Dunn claims that in some cases, Paul affirmed views that were closer to gnosticism than to proto-orthodox Christianity. Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a miha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist. The term "Gnosticism" is a collective name for many varying groups that believed that matter is essentially evil and spirit good. Bellefontaine is located in the beautiful state of Ohio. There was no particular relationship among any set of groups which one could distinguish as Gnostic, as if they were in opposition to some other set of groups. [212] Other authors speak rather of "Gnostic Christians", noting that Gnostics were a prominent substream in the early church. Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements. According to Quispel, gnosis is a third force in western culture, alongside faith and reason, which offers an experiential awareness of this Self. It also focuses on the connection between pre-Socratic (and therefore Pre-Incantation of Christ) ideas and the false beliefs of early gnostic leaders. Those Gnostics who believed in Christ believed that He, the Logos, was one of the superior and more spiritual gods than the ignorant Demiurge. ", Traditional approaches, viewing Gnosticism as a Christian heresy, Phenomenological approaches, most notably. [39] According to Wilhelm Bousset (18651920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism,[39] and Eduard Norden (18681941) also proposed pre-Christian origins,[39] while Richard August Reitzenstein (18611931), and Rudolf Bultmann (18841976) also situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia. [note 30], Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, the Gnostic movements were largely perceived through the lens of the early church heresiologists. [85] According to DeConick, the Gospel of John shows a "transitional system from early Christianity to gnostic beliefs in a God who transcends our world. Produced by individuals whom we now identify as "Gnostic," these texts have been put forward in recent years as reasonable alternative forms of Christianity, as branches that were unjustly suppressed, as teachings that should be allowed to modify the dogma that came down to us or as books that should have been incorporated into the Bible. In addition to accepting Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins, Buckley adds: [T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of - or at least contributors to the development of - Gnosticism and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman. In many Gnostic systems, the aeons are the various emanations of the superior God or Monad. [52][53], In 1966, at the Congress of Median, Buddhologist Edward Conze noted phenomenological commonalities between Mahayana Buddhism and Gnosticism,[54] in his paper Buddhism and Gnosis, following an early suggestion put forward by Isaac Jacob Schmidt. Jonas compares this alienation with the existentialist notion of geworfenheit, Martin Heidegger's "thrownness", as in being thrown into a hostile world. [84] Still other traditions identify Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures. Gnosticism was a notable heretical movement of the 2nd-century Christian Church, partially of pre-Christian origin. [7] According to Williams, the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists. The Gnostic Christians were proto protestant in a sense. SAHAJA MAITHUNA OR URDHVARETA WITHOUT SEMINAL EJACULATION SHARA. J. M. Robinson, "Sethians and Johannine Thought: The Trimorphic Protennoia and the Prologue of the Gospel of John" in, The idea that Gnosticism was derived from Buddhism was first proposed by the Victorian gem collector and numismatist. by Elaine Pagels. Christian Holiday Timeline and Dates. [31], However, scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macch, Ethel S. Drower, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Hberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and inasi Gndz argue for a Palestinian origin. The gnostic doctrine taught that the world was created and ruled by a lesser divinity, the demiurge, and that Christ represented the remote supreme divine being. The Knowledge of Life. [104] Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy have expanded upon this idea of Paul as a gnostic teacher;[105] although their premise that Jesus was invented by early Christians based on an alleged Greco-Roman mystery cult has been dismissed by scholars. http://www.rushsylvaniachurchofchrist.com, California Do Not Sell My Personal Information. Secondly, orthodox leaders feared that Gnostic cults would deceive members of their flocks and lead them to hell. The English Qabala is a system of numerical correspondences developed in the 1970s by British thelemite Jim Lees and a small group of associates with whom he shared his original . [note 25], According to Bentley Layton "Classical Gnosticism" and "The School of Thomas" antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, whom Layton called "the great [Gnostic] reformer" and "the focal point" of Gnostic development. [8], Carl Jung approached Gnosticism from a psychological perspective, which was followed by Gilles Quispel. Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (16941755) proposed that Gnosticism developed on its own in Greece and Mesopotamia, spreading to the west and incorporating Jewish elements. Even on this point, Gnostic writings differ. Rather, we believe that the church is actually the members and believers that come together to practice Gods word, celebrate His love and extend His gifts. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria[note 3] speaks of the "learned" (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms. Since Gnostics considered matter itself corrupt, they also considered the body corrupt. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (Darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). [95], The Gnostic movements may contain information about the historical Jesus, since some texts preserve sayings which show similarities with canonical sayings. Usually, the explanation is that the true, good God created or emanated beings (Archons) who either emanated other Archons or conjugated to produce them until a mishap by Sophia (Wisdom) led to the creation of the evil Archon who created our world and pretends to be God. "I Am That I Am". [177] It seems that Gnostic ideas were an influential part of early Islamic development but later lost its influence. Many of these movements used texts related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian, though quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms. [175], Gershom Scholem, a historian of Jewish philosophy, claimed that several core Gnostic ideas reappear in medieval Kabbalah, where they are used to reinterpret earlier Jewish sources. Old Templar Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. [148] In the late third century, Sethianism was attacked by neo-Platonists like Plotinus, and Sethianism became alienated from Platonism. However, the Mysteries or Sacraments are done with an esoteric Christian view. In normative early Christianity, the Church administered and prescribed the correct behaviour for Christians, while in Gnosticism it was the internalised motivation that was important. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.[45]. From The Gnostic Gospels. [39], Carsten Colpe (b. Here are some answers. [45], In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, because the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. Some of its ideas, especially the pervasive theme of androgyny, can be found in Plato. However, Gnosticism is not a single standardized system, and the emphasis on direct experience allows for a wide variety of teachings, including distinct currents such as Valentinianism and Sethianism. Find a church today! Apparently, he was a poet; some have credited him with authorship of the earliest version of the poetic Gnostic homily Gospel of Truth. We see our church not simply as a house of worship with walls, a roof and open doors. He was a Nazarene. Please click on an individual church website to find the most current and specific information. Nearly every group possesses one or more of them, or some modified version of them. It was first used by the English poet and philosopher of religion Henry More (1614-87), who applied it to the religious groups referred to in ancient sources as . ", Markschies: "something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called 'gnosis' [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense. Churches that call the Bible infallable are engaged in what we call Bibliolatry, the treating of their translation of the Bible as an idol. [211], According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are "better classified by movements (such as Valentinian), mythological similarity (Sethian), or similar tropes (presence of a Demiurge). [28] Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. [64][73] In response, the Godhead emanates two savior aeons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to teach humans how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the pleroma.[74]. The designation gnosticism is a term of modern scholarship. "[205] According to Dillon, "many scholars today continue in the vein of Harnack in reading gnosticism as a late and contaminated version of Christianity", notably Darrell Block, who criticises Elaine Pagels for her view that early Christianity was wildly diverse. Indeed, it appears increasingly evident that many of the newly published Gnostic texts were written in a context from which Jews were not absent. The Gnostic Church of Sophia is spiritually connected with, but not part of, the Gnostic Sanctuary (Ecclesia Gnostica Mysteriorum). [107], Although Elkesaites and Mandaeans were found mainly in Mesopotamia in the first few centuries of the common era, their origins appear be to Judean / Israelite in the Jordan valley. Going further than this, other contemporary scholars such as Michael Allen Williams[7] and David G. Robertson[8] contest whether "Gnosticism" is still a valid or useful historical category at all, or if instead it was simply a term of art of proto-orthodox heresiologists for a disparate group of contemporaneous Christian groups. The church you are viewing considers itself to be a non denominational church. Consequently, various Gnostic writings quote from or allude to almost every one of them. [136] Hermeticism is also a western Gnostic tradition,[88] though it differs in some respects from these other groups. In other cases, it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence negatively, which then becomes more extreme when materiality, including the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants. The Gnostic Gospels are ancient religious writings which falsely claim to be written by famous biblical figures such as Peter, Thomas, and Mary. 054 - Sunday Service, Matthew Chapter 5, Alchemical Purification - Salt, Sulfur & Mercury. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism, viewing materiality as being inherently evil, or as merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows. At The Gnostic Church of Sophia, our doors are open to everyone. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world,[61] varying from the "radical dualist" systems of Manichaeism to the "mitigated dualism" of classic gnostic movements. As we have seen, Epiphanius is one of the witnesses for the existence of a special sect called 'the gnostics', and yet Epiphanius himself seems to distinguish between these people and 'the Sethians' (Pan 40.7.5), whereas Layton treats them as both under the 'classic gnostic' category. Judaism referred to Her as Shekinah, the divine indwelling Presence of God. The Gnostic Church is the authentic primeval Christian Church whose first Pope was the Gnostic initiate called Peter. Yamin, Abathur, and Ptahil). Another way to resist heresy was to emphasize a hierarchy of church leadership in which no man could be made priest or bishop unless he stood in the tradition of previous leaders. [3] Nonetheless, early Gnostic teachers such as Valentinus saw their beliefs as aligned with Christianity. . "[89] According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in the form of the monarchic episcopate, the creed, and the canon of holy books. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). According to Williams the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises,[7] and suggests to replace it with the term "the Biblical demiurgical tradition". In this article, Christian History Institute seeks to show who the Gnostics were, how we know about them, their main writings, what they taught, and what, if anything, we can learn from them. [45] In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa. In the Gnostic Christian tradition, Christ is seen as a divine being which has taken human form in order to lead humanity back to recognition of its own divine nature. [98] The Apocryphon of John contains a scheme of three descendants from the heavenly realm, the third one being Jesus, just as in the Gospel of John. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. The founder of "Christian" Gnosticism was Valentinus, born in Carthage in about 100 A.D. Also, that esoteric knowledge (gnosis) enabled the redemption of the human spirit. [182] In fact, Ismailism has been often criticised as non-Islamic. However the Gnostic light metaphorics and the idea of unity of existence still prevailed in later Islamic thought. 010 - Sunday Service, The Compasses & Square and the Eternal Story of . The Gnostic Church & Academy of Lord Jesus Christ. "[41][note 23], According to John D. Turner, German and American scholarship views Sethianism as "a distinctly inner-Jewish, albeit syncretistic and heterodox, phenomenon", while British and French scholarship tends to see Sethianism as "a form of heterodox Christian speculation". A loving and just God would never condemn anyone to eternal suffering. He uses Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge's sociological theory on traditional religion, sects and cults. Through the Scriptures, service, and Divine Gnosis, we bring God closer to our hearts and closer to the hearts of those around us. Bellefontaine | Ohio | 43311 | Non-Denominational. https://gnosticacademy.org. [98] According to Raymond Brown, the Gospel of John shows "the development of certain gnostic ideas, especially Christ as heavenly revealer, the emphasis on light versus darkness, and anti-Jewish animus.

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